Factors Influencing Accuracy of Interpersonal Perception

Factors Influencing Accuracy of Interpersonal Perception What factors influence the accuracy of interpersonal perception  and the judgments we make about other people? Within the social environment, interpersonal perception is used frequently to make judgments about other people. The accuracy of these can have considerable bearing in a business context, affecting, for example, whether a colleague is considered trustworthy or an individual motivated enough to warrant managerial training. These are clearly important decisions which could prove detrimental to an organisation if incorrect, yet for a number of reasons, assessments of other people may be quite inaccurate. By recognising such risks, the organisation may be able to develop strategies to help ensure more effective decision-making and operations. Establishing the accuracy of social judgments is highly complex and perhaps impossible (Pennington 1993: 108). Most such assessments have a culturally situated element: they are made in socio-cultural contexts that influence what might be correct. For example, Saucier and Goldberg (2001), who have carried out research in the applicability of personality testing in different nations, find that terms used to describe personality do not have equivalents in all languages, resulting in a need to recognise different personality frameworks from region to region. Various cognitive phenomena have been identified that may also compromise accuracy. Stereotyping, for example, is identified by Huczynski and Buchanan (1991: 48) as present in interpersonal perception, and involves attributing particular qualities to an individual on the basis of limited information using prior knowledge and experience. The tendency to stereotype has been attributed to cognitive economy (Pennington 1993: 115-6). Because the environment is so rich in information, the cognitive processing capabilities of the mind struggle to respond to it all. Stereotyping allows a detailed assessment to be created from limited information processing, making fewer cognitive demands. However, because a large proportion of information is overlooked, stereotyping can lead to significant inaccuracies. The related concept of prejudice is described by Goleman as â€Å"emotional learning that takes place early in life† (1996: 157). Goleman notes that nevertheless, individuals typically deny prejudices and attempt to justify prejudiced decisions by formulating alternative reasons for them (ibid). This perhaps reflects the cognitive dissonance of wishing to appear reasonable within a context where prejudice is unacceptable while nevertheless holding such beliefs. This results in a situation where not only do prejudices lead to inaccurate assessments, but also the reasoning behind the assessments is itself inaccurate. The fundamental attribution error (FAE), described as â€Å"the tendency to attribute another person’s behaviour to their dispositional qualities rather than situational factors† (Langdridge and Butt 2004: 359), has been widely researched by psychologists working in the social cognitive tradition. In Western cultures, the FAE is reflected by a scenario where a worker blames having to de-ice their car (a situational factor) before driving to work for their lateness, while their employer may see it as a reflection that the worker is poorly organised (a dispositional factor). Again, cultural factors are influential: it has been found that in the US, dispositional biases are widespread while in East Asia a more holistic approach is taken (Norenzayan and Nisbett 2000: 132), resulting in the FAE being less commonly seen in eastern cultures (ibid). Huczynski and Buchanan (1991 48-9) suggest that if interpersonal judgments are to be more accurate, then it is important to be self-aware and recognise one’s own biases. However, even this process demands culturally-situated reflexivity and may be subject to similar inaccuracies. For example, Seligman finds that the majority of individuals overestimate their social skills, with the most accurate self-perception being among those with depression (1990: 109-110). This may suggest that a positively distorted view of oneself is advantageous to well-being, and that its abundance leads to poor evaluation of others because of individuals’ inability to recognise their own weakness of judgment. A further factor to consider is whether judgments are made by individuals or socially. Gleitman identifies the mechanism of social comparison as important in making judgments: this involves establishing what others’ views might be in order to help form a judgment (1995: 418). Group dynamics were explored extensively by Tajfel, who notes several characteristics of stereotyping in group situations with, for example, role stereotypes are more often applied by groups to themselves (the in-group) while ethnic stereotypes are more often applied to out-groups, the groups which are not part of the in-group (1982: 5-6). Additionally, if one member of a group stands out from the others, the tendency of the rest of the members is to stereotype them more actively (ibid: 8). The mechanisms by which judgments are made may contribute towards inconsistencies between individuals making them. Comparison is fundamental to assessment, according to Mussweiler (2003) who argues that this is done against a standard already established by the judge. Because of individual variations, different judges would be likely to use different standards, leading to different assessments. Comparison against low standards may lead to the ‘halo’ effect, where an individual is seen more positively than might be warranted (Huczynski and Buchanan 1991: 48). Another issue is the use of formalised models that may have limited flexibility and overcategorise. This is particularly relevant when applying theoretical constructs in the workplace. For example, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs suggests that individuals move up through different levels of need as each lower level is satisfied (Maslow 1943). It has been criticised for its implication that one need will take precedence (Hersey et al 1996: 45), but it is possible that for some individuals, higher needs may be of little interest even when lower needs are satisfied. The challenge emerging from the above evidence is to establish whether it is possible to minimise risks of poor judgment through conscious effort to overcome the cognitive mechanisms leading to biases. While it is possible that formal controls such as empirically-tested measures could help, there are still issues of the informal judgment of one individual when introduced to another, not to mention the practicalities and ethical issues regarding testing. Overall, this appears to be an area where inaccuracies and biases may always be influential to some degree, thus awareness may be the best approach to preventing them having a detrimental effect on the organisation. Bibliography Gleitman H (1995) Psychology 4th Edition (New York/London: W W Norton and Company) Goleman D (1996) Emotional Intelligence (London: Bloomsbury) Hersey P, Blanchard K and Johnson D (1996) Management of Organizational Behavior: Utilizing Human Resources 7th Edition (New Jersey: Prentice Hall International) Huczynski A and Buchanan D (1991) Organizational Behaviour 2nd Edition (Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall International) Langdridge D and Butt T (2004) ‘The fundamental attribution error: A phenomenological critique’ in British Journal of Social Psychology Vol 43 pp357-369 Maslow A (1943) ‘A Theory of Human Motivation’ in Psychological Review Vol 50 pp370-96 Mussweiler T (2003) ‘Comparison Processes in Social Judgment: Mechanisms and Consequences’ in Psychological Review Vol 110 (3) pp472-489 Norenzayan A and Nisbett R (2000) ‘Culture and Causal Cognition’ in Current Directions in Psychological Science Vol 9 (4) pp132-135 Pennington D (1993) Essential Social Psychology (London: Edward Arnold) Saucier G and Goldberg L (2001) ‘Lexical Studies of Indigenous Personality Factors: Premises, Products and Prospects’ in Journal of Personality Vol 69 (6) pp847-879 Seligman M (1990) Learned Optimism (New York: Simon and Schuster) Tajfel H (1982) ‘Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations’ in Annual Review of Psychology Vol 33 pp1-39

Measurement Tools for Elder Abuse and Neglect Essay

Elder Assessment Instrument (EAI) is a 41-item Likert scale instrument which consists of seven sections that reviews signs, symptoms and subjective complaints of elder abuse, neglect, exploitation, and abandonment (Fulmer, 2008, p. 1). The EAI can be used in any clinical setting to detect elder abuse and neglect and is accomplished by a professional such as a caregiver, emergency doctor or practitioner. The seven sections are General Assessment (5 items), Possible Abuse Indicators (7 items), Possible Neglect Indicators (14 items), Possible Exploitation Indicators (6 items), Possible Abandonment Indicators (4 items) and Summary (5 items), each section accompanied with an area for comments and follow-up. The summary section directs the user to indicate the likelihood of the presence of each type of mistreatment. The summary is derived from clinical interpretations of the findings in the previous sections. (Fulmer, et al, 2004; Fulmer, 2008). Permission is given to download a copy of the EAI only for non-profit educational purposes from the website of The Hartford Institute for Geriatric Nursing, College of Nursing, New York University, and only if the Institute is cited as the source. Copy of the instrument can be purchased from the Clearinghouse on Abuse and Neglect of the Elderly (CANE). Indicators of Abuse (IOA) The IOA is a 29-item in-home assessment tool (12 abuse risk items about the caregiver, 15 abuse risk items about the care receiver, and 2 demographic questions) used by professionals to determine incidences of elder abuse. Focusing on mental and psychosocial attributes of both caregiver and care receiver, it examines three dimensions of elder abuse: the intrapersonal problems and issues of the caregiver, interpersonal problems of the caregiver, and support issues and history of abuse of the elder. (Cohen, et al. , 2006, p. 663; University of California at Berkeley, School of Social Welfare – BASSC, 2007, p. 7). Although it is not intended for diagnostic purposes, professionals use the IOA to unreported incidences of elder abuse for timely intervention. Research Findings EAI Revised in 2008, the EAI has been used since the early 1980’s and in health care settings such as in the emergency department (Fulmer, et al, 2000; as cited in Fulmer, 2004) and in an acute hospital setting (Carr, et al, 1986; as cited in Fulmer, 2004). Psychometric results show that the EAI, like other popular screening instruments (the EAI is one of the three most frequently cited elder mistreatment tools), lack evidences of overall validity and reliability as it has not been used in a variety of clinical settings (BASSC, 2007, p. 7), however, it is reported that it has a relatively high internal consistency reliability at 0. 84 (Cronbach’s alpha) and test-retest reliability at 0. 83 (Fulmer, 2008, p. 1) Other psychometric data for EAI show its content validity index at 0. 83, interrater agreement at 0. 83, sensitivity at 71%, and specificity at 93% (Fulmer, et al. , 2004, p. 299). IOA The items of the IOA were evaluated for content and construct validity by a multidisciplinary panel. In the original study conducted by the developers of the instrument and which involved 341 participants results show that the IOA was successful in correctly identifying 84. 4% of abuse cases and 99. 2% of non-abuse cases (Reis and Nahmiash,1998, p. 1). Psychometric studies on the IOA show very high internal consistency of . 91 and . 92 (Cronbach’s alpha). Studies also show divergent, concurrent and construct related evidence of validity as it is able to discriminate abuse from non-abuse (BASSC, 2007, p. 9). Clinical Utility EAI The use of EAI in the emergency department has shown auspicious results in abuse identification and reporting (Fulmer, et al. , 2004, p. 299). Although the EAI meets practicality concerns because it can be administered only from 12-15 minutes, it is reported to be weak on scoring system and specificity (Fulmer, et al; 2004). The EAI is expected to be more advantageous than open-ended instruments that are time-consuming. Another strength of the EAI is that it able to make the clinician more sensitive to screening for elder mistreatment and be more receptive to abuse indicators (Fulmer, 2004; Fulmer, 2008). IOA The IOA is an effective tool in identifying abuse risk even before it is reported allowing for timely and exigent intervention (Cohen, et al. , 2006, p. 663). Data show that its use in health and social services organizations has led to the identification of 78% to 84% abuse cases (Wolf, 2000; as cited in Fulmer, et al. , 2004, p. 299). One limitation of the tool however is that it is a subjective evaluation focusing only on indicators (Cohen, et al. , 2006, p. 664). Since it is administered through open clinical interview, differences in interview and evaluation skills of the administrators may pose discrepancies in observations (Cohen, et al. , 2006, p. 664). Another weakness is that it takes around two to three hours to finish the assessment. Because of its length, Fulmer, et al. (2004) assert that the IOA is appropriate for research studies but may pose difficulties in medical and social service settings. Conclusion Both EAI and the E-IOA are clear about the type of risk being assessed, e. g. risk to a victim’s well-being and safety, hence, they are good instruments to be administered in nursing facilities. Elderly people are very vulnerable to abuse and neglect not only by their families. It has also been found out that elder mistreatment could also happen in nursing facilities. It is reported that nurses and caregivers sometimes are the perpetrators of the abuse ((McLafferty & Morrison, 2004; Nahmiash and Reis; 2000). Other instruments that measure elder abuse and neglect are the following: 1. Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) 2. Brief Abuse Screen for the Elderly (BASE) 3. Hwalek-Sengstock Elder Abuse Screening Test (H-S/EAST) 4. Based on the list an aggregate list of instruments that could screen or measure elderly neglect, the following are also being considered for inclusion in my study: References Cohen, M. , et al. (2006). Development of a screening tool for identifying elderly people at risk of abuse by their caregivers. The Journal of Aging and Health. 18: 660-686. Retrieve September 25, 2008 from http://jah. sagepub. com/cgi/content/abstract/18/5/660. University of California at Berkeley, School of Social Welfare (BASSC). (2007). Instruments for assessing elder mistreatment: implications for adult protective services. Evidence for Practice: An Executive Summary, No. 9, Sept 2007. Retrieved March 9, 2009 from, http://cssr. berkeley. edu/research_units/bassc/documents/C61602_9_web. pdf. Fulmer, T. (2008). Elder mistreatment assessment. The Hartford Institute for Geriatric Nursing. No. 15, Retrieved September 28, 2008 from, http://www. hartfordign. org/publications/trythis/issue15. pdf. Fulmer, T. , et al. (2004). Progress in elder abuse screening and assessment instruments. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. Vol 52, No 2. Retrieved September 25, 2008 from http://jah. sagepub. com/cgi/content/abstract/18/5/660.. McLafferty, I. and Morrison, F. (2004). Attitudes towards hospitalized older adults.

The New Fuss About Help on Research Papers

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Generational Difference in the Attitude of Immigrants Essay

There are many factors that contribute to what attitude an immigrant is going to have on their newfound home. Some think the most important thing is their economic outlook, some their religious beliefs, but for most, it is as simple as when they were born. Out of any factor, the generational difference has the largest affect on the approach the immigrants have on their new country, which in many cases is the United States. The generational difference is the largest determining factor because of the impressionability of children, the established identity that the adults must change, and the attachment to the old country that is stronger in some than others. It cannot be said for sure that a certain generation is the â€Å"better† immigrant, but†¦show more content†¦When it comes to culture, the children are the first to adopt it. The new society and all it has to offer captivates them. Like Gogol and his sister, they want to eat all the food from America, they want all the new toys, and they want to be American. In Crossing Over by Ruben Martinez, the fancy shoes and clothes that come from America captivate many young Mexicans that cannot wait to go cross the border themselves. They want to be like the â€Å"migrant boys and their brand-new sneakers and cooler-than-cool beanies†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (87). More so than adults, kids are mesmerized by a flashy society that has newer and better things to offer. Other than what the society has to offer, kids are often benefited by a more tolerant age. Many immigrants are treated poorly whether it be at the hand of racism or stereotypes. This can really turn people off the American society and taint the image of the average American. It is often said that kids are colorblind, and that very much holds true to different races, whether it be Asian, Latino, or African. Adults can face discrimination when it comes to the way they talk or dress, but children usually avoid this. Then, by the time they are adults, th ey have assimilated very well the American culture and blend right in. Adults usually have a harder time adjusting to the new culture. Many times, they simply do not want to have anything to do with a new culture because they already have an identity with the culture of their past home.Show MoreRelatedMy Cohort Of The United States997 Words   |  4 Pagesto understand our current generations and previous generations. Understanding generations’ differences can help us when serving the clients. Human service workers will be meeting clients not only from different cultures but also from different generation cohorts. Generation cohorts usually define as grouping people together who born 12-15 years apart and have common experiences. 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